* PhD Scholar, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi

[2] Simran Dhir and Anuja Agrawal, India: Data Protection And Competition Law: Developments And The Way Forward, August 24, 2021, available at: https://www.mondaq.com/india/antitrust-eu-competition-/1104738/data-protection-and-competition-law-developments-and-the-way-forward (last visited on 5th August 2023)

[3] Ashwini Vaishnaw, ETtech Interview on Data Bill to make social media firms accountable, Aug 10, 2023, available at:https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/newsletters/morning-dispatch/exclusive-new-law-on-digital-competition-likely-to-regulate-big-tech-it-minister-ashwini-vaishnaw-on-data-protection-bill/articleshow/102588582.cms?from=mdr  (last visited on 9th August 2023)

[4] Priyansh Dixit and Sukarm Sharma, Balancing Privacy and Competition: Evaluating the Competitive Effects of India’s Data Protection Bill, Statute Law Review, Volume 44, Issue 2, August 2023, available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/slr/hmad004 ( last visited on 9th August, 2023)

[5] AIR 2017 SC 4161

[6] Section 43A of the IT Act as per the Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008

[7] Section 72A of the IT Act as per the Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008

[8] See the Office Memorandum dated July 31, 2017 issued by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology,  re: Constitution of a Committee of Experts to deliberate on a data protection framework for India, available at: https://www.meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/MeitY_constitution_Expert_Committee_31.07.2017.pdf (last visited on August 10, 2023)

[9] The Digital Personal Data Protection Bill, Section 3(28). Available at: https://prsindia.org/billtrack/the-personal-data-protection-bill-2019 (last visited on August 10, 2023)

[10] In December 2020, it was revised later on.

[11] Anurag Vaishnav, The Personal Data Protection Bill, 2019: All you need to know, December 23, 2019, available at: https://www.prsindia.org/theprsblog/personal-data-protection-bill-2019-all-you-need-know (last visited on August 5, 2023)

[12] See Appendix 2: Data - Trends and Socio-Economic Impact, on page 41, Report by the Committee of Experts on Non-Personal Data Governance Framework, MEITY, Government of India on December 16, 2020, available at: https://static.mygov.in/rest/s3fs-public/mygov_160922880751553221.pdf (last visited on August 5, 2023)

[13] Rachit Sharma, Decoding Digital Personal Data Protection Bill (DPDP): A Comprehensive Overview, August 10, 2023, available at: https://www.taxmann.com/research/company-and-sebi/top-story/222330000000022456/decoding-digital-personal-data-protection-bill-dpdp-a-comprehensive-overview-news (last visited on August 10, 2023)

[14] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 3- Anti-competitive agreements.

[15] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 4- Abuse of dominant position.

[16] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 5 & 6- Regulation of Combinations

[17] Competition Commission of India, Report on Market Study on the Telecom Sector in India: Key Findings and Observations on  January 22, 2021, available at: http://cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/whats_newdocument/Market-Study-on-the-Telecom-Sector-In-India.pdf  (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[18] Competition Commission of India, Report on Market Study on E-Commerce in India: Key Findings and Observations, on January 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/whats_newdocument/Market-study-on-e-Commerce-in-India.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[19] Competition Commission of India, The workshop on Competition Issues in the Telecom Sector in India on February 2021, available at: http://cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/whats_newdocument/Proceedings-Telecom-Workshop.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[20] Competition Commission of India’s order stated under Section 26(1) of the Competition Act in In the Re: Updated Terms of Service and Privacy Policy for WhatsApp Users, (Case No. 01 of 2021), on 24 March 2021,  available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/SM01of2021_0.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[21] Harshita Chawla v. WhatsApp Inc. and Facebook Inc. CCI's orders under Section 26(2) of the Competition Act, Case No. 15 of 2020, on August 18, 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/15-of-2020.pdf (last visited on August 12, 2023)

[22]Case No. 99 of 2016, on June 1, 2017 as available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/26%282%29%20Order%20in%20Case%20No.%2099%20of%202016.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[23] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 31(1), CCI’s orders in Facebook & Jio, Combination Registration No. C-2020/06/747, on June 24, 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/Notice_order_document/order-747.pdf  and Google/ Jio, Combination Registration No. C-2020/09/775, on November 11, 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/Notice_order_document/Order775.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[24] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 33, Interim order given in Federation of Hotel & Restaurant Associations of India (FHRAI) & Anr. v. MakeMyTrip India Pvt. Ltd. (MMT), available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/Interim_Order_14-of-2019and01-of-2020.pdf  (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[25] Ibid.

[26] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 26(1), In Re: Updated Terms of Service and Privacy Policy for WhatsApp Users, Suo Moto Case No. 01 of 2021, on March 24, 2021, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/SM01of2021_0.pdf ( last visited on August 12, 2023)

[27] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 27, Matrimony.com Limited v. Google LLC. & Ors. and Consumer Unity & Trust Society (CUTS) v. Google LLC. & Ors., Case Nos. 07 & 30 of 2012, on February 8, 2018, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/07%20%26%20%2030%20of%202012.pdf (last visited on August 12, 2023)

[28] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 26(1), XYZ v. Alphabet Inc. & Ors. (Case No. 07 of 2020), on November 9, 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/07-of-2020.pdf> (last visited on August 12, 2023)

[29] Notification on February 25, 2021 available at: https://www.meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/Gazette%20Significant%20social%20media%20threshold.pdf (last visited on August 13, 2023)

[30] Abir Roy and Aman Shankar, August 10, 2023, available at: https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/trends/legal/new-data-protection-bill-encompasses-antitrust-provisions-redefines-consent-in-digital-economy-11147731.html# (last visited on August 13, 2023)

[31] CJEU - C-252/21,available at: https://gdprhub.eu/index.php?title=CJEU_-_C-252/21_-_Meta_Platforms_and_Others_v_Bundeskartellamt (last visited on August 13, 2023)

[32] Beatriz Kira, Regulating digital ecosystems: bridging the gap between competition policy and data protection, Industrial and Corporate Change, Volume 30, Issue 5, October 2021, Pages 1337–1360. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtab053 (last visited on August 14, 2023)

[1] Competition Act 2002, s 4(b)

[2] CA Namratha Rodrigues, Economic Business and Commercial Laws (Yeshas Academy) 57

[3] “Competition Act 2002, s 4(a)(1)”

[4] Mr. Ricky Chopra ‘Predatory Pricing and its Legal Regime in India’ (Ricky Chopra International Counsels, July 10th 2021) < https://rcic.in/uncategorized/predatory-pricing-and-its-legal-regime-in-india/ > accessed 04th January 2023

[5] WILL KINTON “Predatory pricing: Definition, Example and why it’s Used” (Investopedia, December 24th 2022) < https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/predatory-pricing.asp > accessed 04th January 2023

[6] Shivali Anand “Why lack of competition maybe the worst thing for new startups”  (Escalon and done, May 4th 2021) < https://escalon.services/blog/why-a-lack-of-competition-may-be-the-worst-thing-for-new-startups/ > accessed 05th January 2022

[7] Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, Market structure/Competition in cable TV services (New Delhi India 7th September 2022) Ch 2 MONOPOLY/MARKET DOMINANCE/COMPETITION ISSUEES IN THE CABLE TV INDUSTRIES para 2.1

[8] Kiran Rathee & Veena Mani ‘ CCI rejects Airtel’s predatory pricing case against Reliance Jio (Business Standards, June 10th, 2017) < https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/cci-rejects-airtel-s-predatory-pricing-case-against-reliance-jio-117061000051_1.html > accessed 05th January 2023

[9] Pavankalyan ‘How Reliance Jio proved that free services by it were not Anti-Competitive ( Complinity, 17th July 202) < https://taxguru.in/corporate-law/reliance-jio-proved-free-services-anti-competitive.html > accessed 05th January 2023

[10] Mint “Airtel accuses reliance jio of predatory pricing as telecom meet ministerial group” (Mint, 16th June 2017) < https://www.livemint.com/Industry/NypkgnFycyS4ODSngZHSYJ/Airtel-accuses-Reliance-Jio-of-predatory-pricing-as-telcos-m.html > Accessed 05th January 2023

[11] Suryansh Singh “The Predatory Pricing Case Against Reliance Jio: Did CCI Miss An Opportunity to Rejuvenate Indian Telecom Sector? (CCLE Competition for Good) < https://www.icle.in/resource/the-predatory-pricing-case-against-reliance-jio-did-cci-miss-an-opportunity-to-rejuvenate-indian-telecom-sector/ > Accessed 05th January 2023

[1] Clear ‘History of GST Explained With Timelines’ (Clear from the makers of cleartax, Dec 01st 2022) < https://cleartax.in/s/history-of-gst#:~:text=Brief%20history%20of%20GST%20Bill%20and%20GST%20Act%20in%20India,-The%20history%20of&text=The%20Fiscal%20Responsibility%20and%20Budget,introduced%20by%20April%201%2C%202010.> Accessed 15th January 2023

[2] Ministry of Finance (Goods and Service Tax Council) < https://gstcouncil.gov.in/brief-history-gst > Accessed 15th January 2023

[3] [3] Ministry of Finance (Goods and Service Tax Council) < https://gstcouncil.gov.in/brief-history-gst > Accessed 15th January 2023

[4] Vaishnavi ‘What is GST?’(GROWW, 28th Feb 2017) < https://groww.in/p/tax/gst > Accessed on 22nd January 2023.

[5] Tejas ‘Measuring the size of economy : GDP’ (Khan Academy, 12th Dec 2020) < https://www.khanacademy.org/economics-finance-domain/macroeconomics/macro-economic-indicators-and-the-business-cycle/macro-the-circular-flow-and-gdp/a/measuring-the-size-of-the-economy-gross-domestic-product-cnx > Accessed on 22nd January 2023.

[6] ‘India GDP Growth Rate 1961-2023 (Macrotrends) < https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/IND/india/gdp-growth-rate#:~:text=India%20gdp%20growth%20rate%20for,a%200.34%25%20decline%20from%202017. > Accessed on 22nd January 2023.

[7] GeeksforGeeks ‘Impact of GST on inflation’ (Geeks for Geeks, 8th august 2022) < https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/impact-of-gst-on-inflation/ > accessed on 25th January 2023.

[1] S.k. Raghuvanshi, Tandon’s Public International Law, 18th ed, 2017, Allahabad law agency, Faridabad, p.352-353

[2] K.C.Joshi, International Law & Human Rights, 4th ed, Eastern Book Company, lucknow, 2019, p.22-223

[3] S.k. Raghuvanshi, Tandon’s Public International Law, 18th ed, 2017, Allahabad law agency, Faridabad, p.358-359

[1] Sharma, S., Mehra, D., Brusselaers, N., & Mehra, S. (2020). Menstrual hygiene preparedness among schools in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis of system-and policy-level actions. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(2), 647.

[2] Indian Young Lawyers Association and Ors. vs. The State of Kerala and Ors. (2019) 11 SCC 1

[3] Bihar Vikas Mission, Human Resource Manual.

[4] Ahead of its time! This Kerala school granted menstrual leave to students way back in 1991 (The Economic Times)

[5] From Period Leaves to Child Care Leaves, All About BYJU’S Updated Leave Policy.

[6] Introducing period leaves for women (zomato.com).

[7] Mahila Shiksha Sangh: a campaign towards empowering women

[8] Shailendra Mani Tripathi v. Union of India, WP (C) No. 172 of 2023, order dated 24-2-2023 (SC).

[9] SEBI/HO/CFD/CMD-2/P/CIR/2021/562, dated 10-5-2021.

[10] Labour Standards Act.

[11] The Employment Code Act, No.3 of 2019.

[12] Painful periods? Spain just passed Europe’s first paid ‘menstrual leave’ law.

[13] Act of Gender Equality in Employment.

[14] Labour Standards Law [Law No. 49 of 7 April 1947

[15] Act Concerning Manpower [Indonesian Labour Law] No. 39, 2003.

[1] The Code of Criminal Procedure ‘1973, Section 154

[2] “C0NSTITUTI0N OF INDIA”,1950, “ARTICLE I4”

[3] “C0NSTITUTION OF INDIA”,1950, “ARTICLE I9”

[4] “C0NSTITUTION OF INDIA”,1950, “ARTICLE 2I”

[5] 1 SCC 595

[6] SEVI AND ANOTHER; KOODAKKAL KARIAN AND OTHERS VERSUS STATE OF TAMIL NADU AND ANOTHER - LNIND 1981 SC 128 (1981) SCC (Cri) 679(1981) Supp SCC 431981 CrLJ 736AIR 1981 SC 1230[1981] 1 MLJ (Crl) 613[1981] MLJ 613[1982] 1 MLJ 7LNIND 1981 SC 1283

[7] “Lalita Kumari v Govt of UP”, (2014) 2 SCC 1

[8] ABHINANDAN JHA & OTHERS VERSUS DINESH MISHRA WITH CONNECTED APPEAL - LNIND 1967 SC 144 (1968) CrLJ 971968 CriLJ 97AIR 1968 SC 117[1967] 3 SCR 668LNIND 1967 SC 144

[9] H N RISHBUD AND INDER SINGH VERSUS THE STATE OF DELHI - LNIND 1954 SC 177 (1955) 1 SCR 1150(1955) S.C.J. 2831955 Cr LJ 5261955 CriLJ 526AIR 1955 SC 196AIR 1955 SC 198[1955] 1 MLJ 173LNIND 1954 SC 177

[10] SEVI AND ANOTHER; KOODAKKAL KARIAN AND OTHERS VERSUS STATE OF TAMIL NADU AND ANOTHER - LNIND 1981 SC 128 (1981) SCC (Cri) 679(1981) Supp SCC 431981 CrLJ 736AIR 1981 SC 1230[1981] 1 MLJ (Crl) 613[1981] MLJ 613[1982] 1 MLJ 7LNIND 1981 SC 1283

[11] “Lalita Kumari v Govt of UP”, (2014) 2 SCC 1

[12] “Lalita Kumari v Govt of UP”(2014) 2 SCC 1

[13] Motiram and others Versus State of Madhya Pradesh - LNIND 1978 SC 206 (1978) 4 SCC 471978 Cr LJ 17031978 SCC (Cri) 485AIR 1978 SC 1594[1979] 1 MLJ (Crl) 280[1979] 1 SCR 335LNIND 1978 SC 206

[1] Krug EG et al., eds. World report on violence and health. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2002

[2] Maheshbhai Bharathi Desai vs State of Gujarat R/CR.MA/26957/2017 

[3] Supra note 1

[4] R. Thornhill & C. T. Palmer, A Natural History of Rape-Biological Bases or Sexual Coercion (1 Ed., 2000); R.

Thornhill & N. Thornhill, The Evolution of Psychological Pain, In Sociology and Social Science (R. Bell N. Bell Eds., 1989).

[5] Indian Penal Code, 1860 (Act 45 of 1860)

[6] Section 375 IPC, Exception 2 – Sexual intercourse or sexual acts by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under fifteen years of age, is not rape

[7] Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2018

[8] Whoever has sexual intercourse with his own wife, who is living separately, whether under a decree of separation or otherwise, without her consent, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which shall not be less than two years but which may extend to seven years, and shall also be liable to fine. Explanation — In this section, “sexual intercourse” shall mean any of the acts mentioned in clauses (a)

to (d) of section 375.

[9] 42nd Law Commission of India Report

[10] Dr Kapoor S. K., International Law and Human Rights, Central Law Agency (17th edition), 2009.

[11] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948: section 2(1) (d) Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993

[12] Article 14 Constitution of India

[13] State of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar, AIR (1952) SC 75

[14] Independent Thought v. Union of India, WRIT PETITION (CIVIL) NO. 382 OF 2013

[15] Joseph shine v. Union of India, writ (criminal) Petition no. 194 of 2017

[16] AIR 1991 SC 207

[17] 1999 (2) ALT Cri 77, II (1999) DMC 174

[18] (1886) ILR 8 All 622

[19] R/CR.MA/26957/2017

[1] Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Company v. Illinois, 118 U.S. 557 (1886).

[2] Smith, Adam (1723-1790), An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1994).

[3] Titan International/ Titan Europe Ltd., Combination Registration No. C-2013/02/109

[4] United States v Smithfield Foods and Premium Standard Farms 1:10-CV- 00120 (DDC Jan 21, 2010)

[5] Vodafone/ Idea Cellular, Combination Registration No. C-2020/08/762

[6] Northern Pacific R. Co. v. United States, 356 U.S. 1 (1958)

[7] Tata Engineering and Locomotive Co. Ltd v. Registrar of Restrictive Trade Agreement, (1977) 47 Comp Cas 520 SC.

[8] United States v. Topco, 405 U.S. 596 (1972)

[9] Eastman Kodak Co. v. Image Technical Servs., Inc., 504 U.S. 451 (1992)

[10] Sherman antitrust Act, (1890), sec.1:Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. Every person who shall make any contract or engage in any combination or conspiracy hereby declared to be illegal shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $100,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $1,000,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding 10 years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court.